Risk factors for vitamin D deficiency include preterm and exclusively breastfed infants,
darker skin, decreased sun exposure and sunscreen use, obesity, malabsorption disorders,
and medications that increase vitamin D catabolism.
Keywords
To read this article in full you will need to make a payment
Purchase one-time access:
Academic & Personal: 24 hour online accessCorporate R&D Professionals: 24 hour online accessOne-time access price info
- For academic or personal research use, select 'Academic and Personal'
- For corporate R&D use, select 'Corporate R&D Professionals'
Subscribe:
Subscribe to Advances in PediatricsAlready a print subscriber? Claim online access
Already an online subscriber? Sign in
Register: Create an account
Institutional Access: Sign in to ScienceDirect
References
- Seasonal changes in Vitamin D-effective UVB availability in Europe and Associations with population serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D.Nutrients. 2016; 8: 533
- Geographic location and vitamin D synthesis.Mol Aspects Med. 2008; 29: 453-461
- Vitamin D deficiency.N Engl J Med. 2007; 357: 266-281
- Vitamin D and intestinal calcium absorption.Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2011; 347: 25-29
- Intestinal transport of phosphate: action of vitamin D, calcium, and potassium.Am J Physiol. 1961; 201: 1007-1012
- Skeletal and extraskeletal actions of vitamin D: current evidence and outstanding questions.Endocr Rev. 2019; 40: 1109-1151
- Nutritional rickets around the world: causes and future directions.Ann Trop Paediatr. 2006; 26: 1-16
- Nutritional rickets in immigrant and refugee children.Public Health Rev. 2016; 37: 1-10
- Vitamin D–deficiency rickets among children in Canada.CMAJ. 2007; 177: 161-166
- Incidence of symptomatic vitamin D deficiency.Arch Dis Child. 2006; 91: 606-607
Thacher TD, Fischer PR, Tebben PJ, et al. Increasing incidence of nutritional rickets: a population-based study in Olmsted County, Minnesota. Paper presented at: Mayo Clinic Proceedings 2013;88(2):176–83.
- The truth about vitamin D and adolescent skeletal health.Adolesc Med State Art Rev. 2012; 23: 457
- Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations and prevalence estimates of hypovitaminosis D in the US population based on assay-adjusted data.J Nutr. 2012; 142: 498-507
- Vitamin D status in the United States, 2011–2014.Am J Clin Nutr. 2019; 110: 150-157
- The National Academies Collection: reports funded by National Institutes of Health.in: Ross A.C. Taylor C.L. Yaktine A.L. Dietary reference intakes for calcium and vitamin D. National Academies Press (US), Washington, DC2011 (Copyright © 2011, National Academy of Sciences)
- Evaluation, treatment, and prevention of vitamin D deficiency: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline.J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011; 96: 1911-1930
- Vitamin D deficiency in children and its management: review of current knowledge and recommendations.Pediatrics. 2008; 122: 398-417
- Prevention of rickets and vitamin D deficiency in infants, children, and adolescents.Pediatrics. 2008; 122: 1142-1152
- Increased skin pigment reduces the capacity of skin to synthesise vitamin D3.Lancet. 1982; 319: 74-76
- Vitamin D in obesity.Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2017; 24: 389-394
- Decreased bioavailability of vitamin D in obesity.Am J Clin Nutr. 2000; 72: 690-693
- Influence of drugs on vitamin D and calcium metabolism.Dermatoendocrinol. 2012; 4: 158-166
- Vitamin D testing: advantages and limits of the current assays.Eur J Clin Nutr. 2020; 74: 231-247
- Vitamin D status as an international issue: national surveys and the problem of standardization.Scand J Clin Lab Invest. 2012; 72: 32-40
- Baseline assessment of 25-hydroxyvitamin D assay performance: a vitamin D standardization program (VDSP) interlaboratory comparison study.J AOAC Int. 2017; 100: 1244-1252
- Vitamin D measurement, the debates continue, new analytes have emerged, developments have variable outcomes.Calcif Tissue Int. 2020; 106: 3-13
- Methodological issues in assessing plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration in newborn infants.Bone. 2014; 61: 186-190
- Consensus statement from 2nd International Conference on Controversies in Vitamin D.Rev Endocr Metab Disord. 2020; 21: 89-116
- Implications of standardization of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D data for the evaluation of vitamin D status in Germany, including a temporal analysis.BMC Public Health. 2018; 18: 845
- C-3 epimers can account for a significant proportion of total circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D in infants, complicating accurate measurement and interpretation of vitamin D status.J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006; 91: 3055-3061
- Epimers of Vitamin D: a review.Int J Mol Sci. 2020; 21: 470
- High prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency in Chinese children with upper limb fractures.Genes Dis. 2020; 7: 408-413
- Association between Vitamin D receptor polymorphism and serum Vitamin D levels in children with low-energy fractures.J Am Coll Nutr. 2017; 36: 64-71
- Vitamin D status in children with forearm fractures: incidence and risk factors.J Am Acad Orthop Surg Glob Res Rev. 2020; 4 (e20.00150-5)
- Vitamin D insufficiency and fracture risk in urban children.J Pediatr Orthop. 2017; 37: 368-373
- Low Vitamin D levels are associated with need for surgical correction of pediatric fractures.J Pediatr Orthop. 2017; 37: 23-29
- Vitamin D status in abused and nonabused children younger than 2 years old with fractures.Pediatrics. 2011; 127: 835-841
- Rachitic changes, demineralization, and fracture risk in healthy infants and toddlers with vitamin D deficiency.Radiology. 2012; 262: 234-241
- Prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency in Swiss teenagers with appendicular fractures: a prospective study of 100 cases.J Child Orthop. 2012; 6: 497-503
- Vitamin D levels and fracture risk among Hispanic children.Eur J Orthop Surg Traumatol. 2019; 29: 531-536
- Vitamin D deficiency in children with fractures.Pediatr Emerg Care. 2014; 30: 777-781
- Vitamin D and fracture risk in early childhood: a case-control study.Am J Epidemiol. 2017; 185: 1255-1262
- Survey of current vitamin D food fortification practices in the United States and Canada.J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2013; 136: 211-213
- Vitamin D Supplementation guidelines for general population and groups at risk of Vitamin D deficiency in Poland-Recommendations of the Polish Society of Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes and the expert panel with participation of national specialist consultants and representatives of scientific societies-2018 update.Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2018; 9: 246
- Vitamin D status and associations in newborn formula-fed infants during initial hospitalization.J Am Diet Assoc. 2011; 111: 1836-1843
- High prevalence of moderately severe vitamin D deficiency in preterm infants.Pediatr Int. 2011; 53: 207-210
- Response of vitamin D binding protein and free vitamin D concentrations to vitamin D supplementation in hospitalized premature infants.J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2015; 28: 1107-1114
- Vitamin D status of early preterm infants and the effects of vitamin D intake during hospital stay.Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2014; 99: F166-F168
- Vitamin D status among preterm and full-term infants at birth.Pediatr Res. 2014; 75: 75-80
- Randomized trial of two doses of vitamin D3 in preterm infants <32 weeks: dose impact on achieving desired serum 25(OH)D3 in a NICU population.PLoS One. 2017; 12: e0185950
- Increased gain in bone mineral content of preterm infants fed an isocaloric, protein-, and mineral-enriched postdischarge formula.Eur J Nutr. 2013; 52: 1781-1785
- Higher vitamin D intake in preterm infants fed an isocaloric, protein- and mineral-enriched postdischarge formula is associated with increased bone accretion.J Nutr. 2013; 143: 1439-1444
- Trial of daily vitamin D supplementation in preterm infants.Pediatrics. 2014; 133: e628-e634
- Effects of ethnicity and vitamin D supplementation on vitamin D status and changes in bone mineral content in infants.BMC Pediatr. 2012; 12: 6
- Effect of different dosages of oral vitamin D supplementation on vitamin D status in healthy, breastfed infants: a randomized trial.JAMA. 2013; 309: 1785-1792
- Vitamin D supplementation in breastfed infants from Montréal, Canada: 25-hydroxyvitamin D and bone health effects from a follow-up study at 3 years of age.Osteoporos Int. 2016; 27: 2459-2466
- Effect of higher vs standard dosage of vitamin D3 supplementation on bone strength and infection in healthy infants: a randomized clinical trial.JAMA Pediatr. 2018; 172: 646-654
- A randomized, controlled trial of vitamin D supplementation upon musculoskeletal health in postmenarchal females.J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010; 95: 4643-4651
- Effect of vitamin D replacement on musculoskeletal parameters in school children: a randomized controlled trial.J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006; 91: 405-412
- Effect of vitamin D replacement on hip structural geometry in adolescents: a randomized controlled trial.Bone. 2013; 56: 296-303
- Manifestations of severe vitamin D deficiency in adolescents: effects of intramuscular injection of a megadose of cholecalciferol.J Trop Pediatr. 2011; 57: 303-306
- Vitamin D intervention and bone: a randomized clinical trial in fair- and dark-skinned children at Northern Latitudes.J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2018; 67: 388-394
- Effects of vitamin D supplementation on bone density in healthy children: systematic review and meta-analysis.BMJ. 2011; 342: c7254
- New concepts in Vitamin D requirements for children and adolescents: a controversy revisited.Front Horm Res. 2018; 50: 42-65
- Vitamin D requirements during lactation: high-dose maternal supplementation as therapy to prevent hypovitaminosis D for both the mother and the nursing infant.Am J Clin Nutr. 2004; 80: 1752S-1758S
- Bone mineral content, serum vitamin D metabolite concentrations, and ultraviolet B light exposure in infants fed human milk with and without vitamin D2 supplements.J Pediatr. 1989; 114: 204-212
- Maternal versus infant vitamin D supplementation during lactation: a randomized controlled trial.Pediatrics. 2015; 136: 625-634
- Vitamin D supplements and prevention of cancer and cardiovascular disease.N Engl J Med. 2019; 380: 33-44
Article info
Publication history
Published online: June 16, 2021
Identification
Copyright
© 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
